One‑page cheat sheet: punctuation + logic for joining ideas
What the test is checking
• Can you join ideas correctly: coordination , + FANBOYS, (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)., semicolons, subordination, colons/dashes, or a period?
• Can you match the logic: addition, contrast, cause/effect, example, explanation?
• Can you avoid comma splices and misuse of transitions (e.g., however, therefore)?
Diagnose your clauses quickly
• Independent clause (IC) = subject + conjugated verb; can stand alone.
• Dependent clause (DC) = needs an IC (starts with although, because, if, when, since, while…).
• IC + IC needs: ', FANBOYS' or ';' or '.' (or ':' if the second explains the first).
Correct ways to link ideas (formats you’ll use)
• IC , FANBOYS IC → coordination (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So). Example: The lab was noisy, but the results were clear.
• IC ; IC → semicolon for closely related ideas.
• IC ; transition, IC → conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, for example).
• IC : explanation/example/result → the first part must be a full IC.
• Subordination: DC , IC or IC DC (comma when DC comes first).
Mini decision path
• Are both sides full sentences (IC + IC)? Use ', FANBOYS' or ';' or '.' (':' only if second explains).
• Is there a transitional adverb (however/therefore/for example)? Use '; transition,' or start a new sentence.
• Does the second part explain or restate? Use a colon (first part must be an IC).
Common traps (with fixes)
• Comma splice: IC , IC ✘ → IC , FANBOYS IC ✓ or IC ; IC ✓ or IC. IC ✓
• Only a comma before a transition: IC, however, IC ✘ → IC; however, IC ✓
• Colon after a fragment ✘ → Make sure the text before ':' is a full IC.
• Missing comma with FANBOYS when joining two ICs: IC and IC ✘ → IC, and IC ✓
Quick practice (choose the best link)
1) The museum expanded its hours attendance continued to rise. (A) , so (B) ; so (C) , however, (D) , and
2) The coach kept the drill short the game started at noon. (A) because (B) however (C) therefore (D) moreover
3) The article cites one cause declining participation. (A) ; however, (B) : (C) , and (D) ,
4) The trial was small the effect size was large. (A) , but (B) ; because (C) , since (D) :
5) Demand dipped in April rebounded in May. (A) , it (B) ; (C) , because (D) :
Answer key: 1) A 2) A 3) B 4) A 5) B
Tip: Label each side IC/DC → pick punctuation that matches the logic.
What the test is checking
• Choose the correct boundary mark (period, semicolon, comma + FANBOYS, colon, dash, parentheses).
• Avoid run‑ons, comma splices, and fragments.
• Punctuate transitional adverbs (however, therefore, for example) correctly.
Big-picture boundary rules
• Period (.) separates two independent clauses (IC. IC).
• Semicolon (;) links closely related ICs (IC ; IC).
• Comma + FANBOYS joins two ICs (IC , FANBOYS IC).
• Colon (:) follows a full IC and introduces an explanation, restatement, or list (IC : …).
• Dash (—) can replace a colon for emphasis or set off an aside (— … —).
• Parentheses (… ) add a low‑emphasis aside (use asides sparingly).
• Never do IC , IC (comma splice).
Semicolon vs. comma vs. period
• Use ';' instead of ', FANBOYS' when you don’t want a coordinating word but the ideas are tightly linked.
• Do NOT use just a comma between ICs. Fix: ';' or ', FANBOYS' or a period.
• 'So' as a FANBOYS conjunction takes a comma when joining two ICs: IC , so IC.
Colon and dash
• The text before ':' must be a complete sentence; the second part explains, gives examples, or restates.
• Don’t put ':' right after 'such as'/'including' (those already introduce examples).
• A dash can often substitute for a colon with more emphasis: IC—explanation/restatement.
Transitional adverbs (THAMOs)
• Inside one sentence: IC; however, IC / IC; therefore, IC / IC; for example, IC.
• Or start a new sentence: IC. However, IC.
• Don’t write: IC, however, IC (comma before a transition is not enough).
Fragments and run-ons
• Fragment = missing subject or main verb, or a dependent clause standing alone → add/attach to an IC.
• Run‑on/fused = two ICs with no proper punctuation; comma splice = two ICs with only a comma → fix with ';', ', FANBOYS', a period, or subordination.
Mini decision path
1) Are both sides full sentences? → ';' / ', FANBOYS' / '.' (':' only if the second explains/restates).
2) Is there a transitional adverb? → '; transition,' or start a new sentence.
3) Explaining or listing? → Use a colon after a full IC (or a dash for emphasis).
Quick practice (choose the best punctuation)
1) The sample was small the effect was consistent. (A) , but (B) ; because (C) , since (D) :
2) The board delayed the vote turnout was low. (A) ; because (B) , however, (C) ; (D) , it
3) There’s one root cause supplier delays. (A) ; however, (B) : (C) , and (D) , since
4) The device passed the test it overheated twice. (A) , but (B) ; because (C) : (D) , therefore,
5) The report was thorough however, it overlooked regional data. (A) , (B) ; (C) : (D) , and
6) We bought three items notebooks, markers, and folders. (A) : (B) ; (C) , so (D) —
Answer key: 1) A 2) C 3) B 4) A 5) B 6) A
Tip: Label each side IC/DC → then pick the mark that matches the logic ((linking, contrast, cause, explanation).
What the test is checking
• Mixing punctuation types ✘ → Use matching marks: The car—a hybrid—was new ✓
• Using commas around essential info ✘ → Don’t set off “that‑clauses” (essential): The data that were missing caused delays ✓
• Dangling/ambiguous supplement ✘ → Keep it next to what it modifies.
• Hyphen (‑) vs dash (—): dashes—not hyphens—set off supplements.
What is a “supplement”?
• Words, phrases, or relative clauses that add extra information but aren’t required to identify the noun or
complete the main idea.
• Test: Remove the supplement. If what remains is a complete, true sentence, the removed part is a
supplement.
• Common types: appositives (renamers), nonrestrictive relative clauses (which/who), brief asides or
interrupters.
Three ways to set off supplements (mid-sentence = TWO marks)
• Commas: My coach, who played professionally, encourages us to review film. (neutral, standard)
• Dashes (— —): The coach—once a pro—tracks every drill. (stronger emphasis/interruption)
• Parentheses (…): The drill (our favorite) builds consistency. (lowest emphasis, “whisper”)
Rule: Mid‑sentence supplements need two matching marks; at sentence end, you’ll often see just the opening mark before the supplement: The drill is timed, our favorite. / The coach tracks drills—every single one.Never mix marks (comma + dash, dash + parenthesis). Use the same type to open and close.
Essential vs. nonessential (restrictive vs. nonrestrictive)
• Essential info is needed to identify the noun → do NOT set off: Students who study daily score higher.
• Nonessential info just adds details → set off with commas/dashes/parentheses: My coach, who played
professionally, keeps practices short.
• “That” usually introduces essential clauses (no commas). “Which” usually introduces nonessential clauses (commas). “Who” can be either—decide by meaning.
Placement & core sentence check
• Place the supplement immediately next to the word it describes to avoid ambiguity: The river, winding
through town, floods each spring.
• Don’t break the subject–verb core with a stray comma: The experiment, showed improvements ✘ → The experiment showed improvements ✓
• If you insert a mid‑sentence supplement, close it before the verb or object so the core reads cleanly: The
experiment, which lasted six weeks, showed improvements.
Common traps (and fixes)
• One comma around a mid‑sentence supplement ✘ → Use two: The car, a hybrid, was new ✓
• Mixing punctuation types ✘ → Use matching marks: The car—a hybrid—was new ✓
• Using commas around essential info ✘ → Don’t set off “that‑clauses” (essential): The data that were missing caused delays ✓
• Dangling/ambiguous supplement ✘ → Keep it next to what it modifies.
• Hyphen (‑) vs dash (—): dashes—not hyphens—set off supplements.
Mini decision path
1) Remove the suspected supplement—does the sentence still work and stay true? If yes, it’s a supplement.
2) Choose emphasis: commas (neutral), dashes (strong), parentheses (low).
3) Insert matching marks in the right place; don’t separate the subject from its verb unless a fully closed
supplement sits between them.
Quick practice (choose the best punctuation)
A) The museum exhibit a world premiere drew record crowds. (add a nonessential detail)
B) The interns who arrived early set up the room. (decide essential vs nonessential)
C) The coral reef among the largest on Earth faces new threats. (mid‑sentence supplement)
D) The algorithm was accurate our best performer yet. (supplement at sentence end)
E) Her brother the lead researcher, presented the findings. (appositive)
Sample answers: A) , … , B) no commas C) — … — D) , E) , … ,
Tip: Mid‑sentence supplements need two matching marks; at the sentence end, one mark before the supplement often suffices.
One‑page cheat sheet: make the verb match the REAL subject in number
What the test is checking
• Can you identify the true subject (ignore extra phrases/clauses) and match it to a singular/plural verb?
• Can you handle tricky patterns: prepositional phrases, relative clauses, collective nouns, and compound subjects?
• Can you use special rules for words like each/every, either/neither, percent/fractions, and there is/are?
Core rules to lock in
• Find the subject first; cross out prepositional phrases (of, with, along with, as well as, together with). They do not change number.
• Verbs agree with subjects, not with nouns in modifying phrases: The bouquet of roses **is** on the table.
• With **there is/are** (and questions), the verb agrees with the real subject that follows: There **are**
reasons; Where **are** the keys?
• In relative clauses, the verb agrees with the pronoun’s antecedent: The students **who are** absent… / The student **who is** absent…
Indefinite pronouns
• **Always singular:** each, either, neither, every, everybody/everyone, anybody/anyone,
somebody/someone, nobody/no one, everything, something, anything, nothing.
• **Always plural:** few, many, several, both.
• **Singular or plural (depends on the of‑phrase):** all, any, more, most, none, some, half, percent. (If the 'of' noun is plural/countable → take plural; if uncountable/mass → take singular.)
Compound subjects
• **A and B → plural:** The coach and the players **were** ready.
• **Exceptions (often singular):** one idea/set phrase (peanut butter and jelly **is**…), each/every before both parts (Each student and teacher **is**…), or the same person/thing described twice.
• **A or B / neither A nor B → agree with the nearer subject** (proximity rule): Neither the coaches nor the captain **was**… / Neither the captain nor the coaches **were**…
Collective nouns & units
• Collective nouns (team, committee, audience) are usually **singular** when acting as a unit: The team **wins**.
• If emphasizing individuals, a plural verb may appear, but SAT often prefers singular unless context demands plural.
• Amounts of time, money, distance treated as a single unit take **singular** verbs: Ten dollars **is** enough;
Three miles **is** far.
Tricky noun patterns
• Nouns ending in **‑s** that are singular: news, mathematics, physics, economics (as a field) → **is**.
• Words like statistics, acoustics can be singular (the field) or plural (the numbers/sounds) depending on
meaning.
• Titles of works, company names, and course names take **singular** verbs: The Chronicles of Narnia **is**…
• **The number of** X **is**… vs. **A number of** X **are**…
• **One of the** + plural noun + **singular** verb in the clause about “one”: One of the students **is**…
Mini decision path
1) Circle the subject; slash out modifiers (prepositional phrases, appositives, interrupters).
2) If joined by AND → plural (check exceptions). If OR/NOR → match the nearer subject.
3) Check for special triggers: each/every, there is/are, percent/fraction, collective noun, field‑name ending in
‑s.
Quick practice (choose the correct verb)
1) The bouquet of spring flowers on the table. (A) are (B) is
2) Neither the tutors nor the student available at noon. (A) are (B) is
3) Each of the experiments a control group. (A) include (B) includes
4) A number of compelling reasons this approach. (A) supports (B) support
5) The statistics in this report misleading. (A) is (B) are
6) Fifty dollars sufficient for the materials. (A) are (B) is
7) There several options on the table. (A) is (B) are
8) The team, along with its coaches, traveling tomorrow. (A) are (B) is Answer key: 1) is 2) is 3) includes 4) support 5) are 6) is 7) are 8) is
Tip: Strip away modifiers to expose the subject, then apply the special rules above.
What the test is checking
• Do pronouns agree with their antecedents in number (singular/plural) and, when relevant, person/gender?
• Is the antecedent crystal clear (not ambiguous or missing)?
• Are relative pronouns (who/which/that) and demonstratives (this/that/these/those) used precisely?
Core rules to lock in
• A pronoun must match its antecedent in number: student → he/she/they (see note below); students →
they/their.
• Keep the antecedent close and specific; avoid ambiguous references when two nouns could fit.
• With collective nouns (team, committee), default to singular pronoun (its) when the group acts as a unit.
Indefinite pronouns
• Always singular: each, either, neither, every/everyone/everybody, someone/somebody, anyone/anybody, no one/nobody, everything/something/anything/nothing.
• Always plural: few, many, several, both → take plural pronouns (they/their).
• Singular or plural (depends on the 'of' noun): all, any, more, most, none, some, half, percent → match the object of 'of' (plural = they; mass/uncountable = it).
Relative & demonstrative pronouns
• who = people; which = things; that = people or things (often in essential clauses). Choose based on meaning.
• Make sure 'who/which/that' clearly refers to the right noun; place the antecedent immediately before the clause to avoid ambiguity.
• this/that (singular) vs. these/those (plural). Prefer a clear noun after a demonstrative in formal writing: This finding… / These results…
Tricky patterns & fixes
• Ambiguous reference: If two nouns could be the antecedent, rewrite to name the noun instead of using a pronoun.
• Missing antecedent: Start with a noun, not a pronoun out of nowhere (e.g., 'This shows…' → 'This analysis shows…').
• Each/every with compound subjects stays singular: Each student and teacher brought **his or her** ID → Prefer plural rewrite: All students and teachers brought **their** IDs.
• Agreement across interruptions: The box of spare parts lost **its** label (not their).
Mini decision path
1) Find the exact noun the pronoun stands for; make sure only one noun fits.
2) Match number: singular → it/its; plural → they/their. (Indefinite‑pronoun rules above.)
3) If unclear, rewrite to make the antecedent explicit or change the noun to plural so you can use 'they/their' unambiguously.
Quick practice (choose the best option)
1) Each of the finalists shared portfolio with the panel. (A) their (B) his or her
2) The committee announced decision after the vote. (A) its (B) their
3) The microscopes in the lab lost calibration during the move. (A) its (B) their
4) The researchers tested a device that failed twice, which surprised . (A) them (B) the researchers
5) Neither of the proposals met requirements. (A) their (B) its
6) The batteries and the charger were missing, so were replaced. (A) it (B) they
7) The students who missed the briefing said were confused about the schedule. (A) they (B) he
8) This shows that better sampling is needed. (Improve clarity.) (A) This shows… (B) This analysis shows…
Answer key: 1) B 2) A 3) B 4) B (avoid ambiguous 'them') 5) B 6) B 7) A 8) B
Tip: If a sentence forces a singular indefinite + plural pronoun, rewrite: make the noun plural to use 'they/their' cleanly.
What the test is checking
• Do verbs use the correct tense/aspect for the timeline? (simple, perfect, progressive)
• Are irregular participles correct (has gone, had written — not *has went*, *had wrote*)?
• Do special forms work: infinitives/gerunds, passive voice, and the subjunctive?
• Is tense consistent unless a clear time shift is signaled?
Tense & aspect — quick map
• Simple present: habits/truths (Scientists **test** hypotheses).
• Simple past: finished past (The trial **ended** yesterday).
• Present perfect (has/have + p.p.): past → now, unspecified time or continuing (Scores **have improved** since May).
• Past perfect (had + p.p.): earlier past before another past action (By 8 a.m., labs **had opened**).
• Progressive (am/is/are/was/were + ‑ing): ongoing at a time (We **were analyzing** data).
• Future / future perfect: **will** test; **will have completed** (rarer on SAT).
Timeline rules you’ll use most
• Use **past perfect** only when two past moments are contrasted and you need the earlier one.
• Use **present perfect** with since/for/over the last… when the situation connects to now. Avoid it with finished times (in 2010 → simple past).
• Keep tenses **consistent** within a sentence/paragraph unless a time marker (now, then, earlier) forces a shift.
Irregular past participles (common SAT fixes)
• go → **gone**; write → **written**; break → **broken**; choose → **chosen**; eat → **eaten**; give →**given**; see → **seen**; take → **taken**; do → **done**; run → **run**; swim → **swum**; sing → **sung**; ring → **rung**.
• Watch lie/lay: **lie** (recline) lie/lay/lain; **lay** (put) lay/laid/laid.
• Avoid: *has went, have did, had wrote* → use **has gone, have done, had written**.
Infinitives vs. gerunds
• Verbs that take **to‑infinitive**: want, plan, hope, need, decide, expect, fail, agree (She **decided to apply**).
• Verbs that take **‑ing**: enjoy, avoid, consider, suggest, recommend, admit, deny (They **suggested
revising**).
• Nuance verbs: try (to do / doing), remember/forget (to do vs. doing), stop (to do vs. doing). Choose the form that matches meaning.
• “Used to” (past habit) vs. “be used to” + ‑ing (accustomed to).
Passive voice & subjunctive
• Passive = form of **be + past participle** (The samples **were stored**). Use when the doer is
unknown/irrelevant.
• Subjunctive after demands/recommendations: **that** + base verb (They recommend that she **apply**).
• Hypothetical “were”: If I **were** in charge… ; Wish I **were** taller…
• Conditionals: If + past → **would + base**; If + past perfect → **would have + p.p.** (don’t put *would* in the if‑clause).
Parallel verb forms
• Keep forms consistent in lists: **to test, to analyze, and to report** (or **testing, analyzing, and reporting**).
• After prepositions, use **‑ing**: for **analyzing**, by **doing**.
Mini decision path
1) Place events on a timeline (now, past, earlier past).
2) Choose aspect: ongoing (progressive) vs. completed/unspecified‑to‑now (perfect) vs. simple.
3) Check for special frames: demands (subjunctive), since/for (present perfect), two past moments (past perfect).
4) Verify irregular participle and keep forms parallel.
Quick practice (choose the best verb form)
1) By the time the train , we had been waiting for an hour. (A) arrives (B) arrived (C) had arrived (D) was arriving
2) She has the report already. (A) finish (B) finished (C) finishes (D) finishing
3) The ancient city in 2010. (A) has been discovered (B) was discovered (C) had been discovered
4) Before the lecture began, the tech team the projector. (A) set (B) had set (C) has set
5) The committee recommends that the chair the policy. (A) adopts (B) adopt (C) is adopting
6) He stopped the directions before continuing. (A) to check (B) checking
7) If I you, I would start earlier. (A) was (B) were
8) The results steadily since May. (A) improved (B) have improved (C) had improved Answer key: 1) B 2) B 3) B 4) B 5) B 6) A 7) B 8) B
Tip: Use past perfect only to show an earlier past; use present perfect with 'since/for' to link past to now; keep forms parallel.
What the test is checking
• Do modifiers sit next to the words they modify?
• Does an introductory modifier actually modify the sentence’s subject (no dangling modifiers)?
• Are nonessential details placed so the sentence’s core (subject + verb) remains clear?
Core rules to lock in
• Proximity: Put the modifier immediately before or after the word it modifies.
• Introductory modifier must modify the subject that immediately follows:
✘ Walking across campus, the rain soaked the students. → ✓ Walking across campus, the students were soaked by the rain.
• Close your supplements (,…, —…—, (…)) before resuming the core subject–verb.
• Keep the subject and its main verb as close as possible; avoid unnecessary interruptions.
Common modifier types & how to place them
• Participial phrases (‑ing/‑ed): Modifies the nearest noun: The scientist, analyzing the data, noted a trend.
• Appositives (renamers): Place right after the noun they rename: The rover, a prototype, completed the test.
• Relative clauses (who/which/that): Put them right after the antecedent to avoid ambiguity.
• Prepositional/adverb phrases: Place them where meaning is unambiguous; avoid drifting phrases.
• Focus adverbs (only, almost, just, even, nearly): Place directly before the word they limit:
✓ She only revised the introduction (not other parts). vs ✓ She revised only the introduction (not other sections).
Frequent errors (and quick fixes)
• Dangling modifier: Name the doer: After reviewing the results, the research team presented the findings.
• Misplaced relative clause: Move clause next to the correct noun: The samples that arrived late were refrigerated.
• Ambiguous 'only/almost/just': Move the adverb to the word it truly limits.
• Unnecessary subject–verb split: The analysis, despite several interruptions, resumed → Keep the core tight: The analysis resumed despite several interruptions.
Mini decision path
1) Find the core: subject + main verb (strip out extras).
2) Identify the word/phrase the modifier is meant to describe.
3) Move the modifier next to that word; if the doer is missing, add it.
4) Re‑read for clarity; fix 'only/almost/just' placement.
Quick practice (choose the best revision)
1) Racing to the lab, the experiment began late. (A) Racing to the lab, the team began the experiment late. (B) The experiment, racing to the lab, began late.
2) The committee approved the plan that met yesterday. (A) The committee that met yesterday approved the plan. (B) The committee approved the plan, which met yesterday.
3) The teacher only graded the essays after class. (A) The teacher graded only the essays after class. (B) Only after class did the teacher grade the essays.
4) Painted last year, the museum displayed the restored mural. (A) The museum displayed the restored mural, painted last year. (B) Painted last year, the restored mural was displayed by the museum.
5) The report describes a device with several diagrams that was tested. (A) The report describes a device that was tested, with several diagrams. (B) The report, with several diagrams, describes a device that was tested.
6) While reading the draft, several errors were found by the editor. (A) While reading the draft, the editor found several errors. (B) Several errors, while reading the draft, were found by the editor.
7) Nearly the team completed the challenge. (A) The team nearly completed the challenge. (B) Nearly completed the challenge was the team.
8) The students discussed the article in the library who had missed class. (A) The students who had missed class discussed the article in the library. (B) The students discussed the article who had missed class in the library.
Answer key: 1) A 2) A 3) A or B (both change focus correctly) 4) B 5) A 6) A 7) A 8) A
Tip: If a sentence opens with a modifier, the very next noun should be the thing doing that action.
What the test is checking
• Can you form plurals correctly (regular, irregular, hyphenated/compound)?
• Can you show possession with the right apostrophe placement (’s vs. s’)?
• Can you avoid apostrophes for simple plurals and for possessive pronouns?
Plurals — core patterns
• Regular: add ‑s (book → books), add ‑es after s, x, z, ch, sh (box → boxes).
• Change y → ies after a consonant (city → cities); keep y after a vowel (day → days).
• Change f/fe → ves in common words (leaf → leaves, life → lives) — but some just take ‑s (roof → roofs).
• Irregular plurals: child → children; person → people; man/woman → men/women; mouse → mice; tooth → teeth; foot → feet; cactus → cacti/cactuses; syllabus → syllabi/syllabuses.
• Hyphenated/compound: sister‑in‑law → sisters‑in‑law; passerby → passersby; attorney general → attorneys general.
• No apostrophes for simple plurals: 1990s, GPAs, two CEOs.
Possessives — core rules
• Singular noun: add ’s (the student’s notebook).
• Regular plural ending in ‑s: add only ’ (the students’ lockers).
• Irregular plural not ending in ‑s: add ’s (the children’s books, the men’s room).
• Names ending in s: often add ’s (Charles’s essay). Some styles allow Charles’ — be consistent; SAT typically accepts either when used consistently and read naturally.
• Joint vs. separate possession:
– Joint (shared): Kim and Jordan’s project (one project).
– Separate (individual): Kim’s and Jordan’s projects (two projects).
• Time/amount phrases: a day’s work; three weeks’ notice (plural unit → apostrophe after s).
• Inanimate possession is fine when natural: the car’s engine, the book’s cover; or use of‑phrases (the cover of the book) when smoother.
Apostrophes you should NOT use
• Never for possessive pronouns: its, yours, his, hers, theirs, ours (no apostrophe).
• it’s = it is / it has (contraction only).
• Do not use apostrophes to make normal plurals: photo’s ✘ → photos ✓
Compound & hyphenated nouns (possession)
• Add the possessive to the last word of the compound: my sister‑in‑law’s car.
• For plural compound owners: my sisters‑in‑law’s car (plural base + ’s on final word).
Mini decision path
1) Decide: plural or possession (or both).
2) If plural only → add ‑s/‑es (no apostrophe).
3) If possession → singular ’s; plural ending in ‑s → s’; irregular plural → ’s.
4) Check special cases: time/amount phrases; joint vs. separate owners; pronoun vs. contraction (its vs. it’s).
Quick practice (choose the best option)
1) The covers were torn. (A) book’s (B) books’ (C) books
2) All of the research was published last year. (A) professors’ (B) professor’s (C) professors
3) The playground was renovated. (A) children’s (B) childrens’ (C) childrens
4) We scheduled a two break. (A) weeks (B) week’s (C) weeks’
5) The batteries were defective. (A) remotes’ (B) remote’s (C) remotes
6) The keynote received an award. (A) CEOs (B) CEO’s (C) CEOs’
7) Carlos and Maya’s proposal was accepted, but were not. (A) Henry and Aisha’s (B) Henry’s and Aisha’s (C) Henrys’ and Aishas’
8) The analysis lost references during the export. (A) it’s (B) its
Answer key: 1) C 2) A (plural owners) 3) A (irregular plural) 4) C (plural unit) 5) C (simple plural) 6) B (possessive singular) 7) B (separate owners) 8) B (possessive pronoun)
Tip: Ask first: “Is this plural, possessive, or both?” Then apply ’s / s’ only for possession (never for simple plurals).
One‑page cheat sheet: choose the transition that matches the logical relationship
What the test is checking
• Do you make the relationship between ideas clear (within/between sentences and paragraphs)?
• Can you ADD, DELETE, or REPLACE a transition to improve clarity and flow?
• Do you avoid wrong‑direction signals, redundancy, and double transitions?
Major relationship types → common transitions
• Addition / Similarity: moreover, furthermore, in addition, also, likewise, similarly.
• Contrast / Concession: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, instead, on the other hand, conversely, even so, although/though.
• Cause → Effect / Result: therefore, thus, consequently, as a result, hence, accordingly.
• Example / Illustration: for example, for instance, in particular, specifically, namely.
• Emphasis / Clarification / Restatement: indeed, in fact, that is, in other words, namely.
• Sequence / Time: first, next, then, finally, meanwhile, subsequently, previously, eventually.
• Comparison: likewise, similarly; Contrast (opposites): in contrast, whereas, on the other hand.
Tip: If none of these relationships exists, you may not need any transition at all.
How to choose the right transition (fast method)
1) Read BEFORE and AFTER the blank; summarize the relationship in 1–3 words (e.g., contrast, result, example).
2) Pick from the correct category in Section 2; reject options from other categories.
3) If the sentence already clearly shows the relationship (because, although, but, for example…), consider deleting the extra transition to avoid redundancy.
Punctuation reminders (when used inside one sentence)
• Conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore, for example): IC; however, IC or IC. However, IC (not just a
comma).
• After a transition at the sentence start, follow with a comma: However, … Therefore, … For example, …
• Do NOT stack transitions: ✘ However, but … ✘ Therefore, so …
Frequent traps (and fixes)
• Wrong direction: A positive → positive idea isn’t contrast; use addition or delete the transition.
• Too specific/too general: Match the meaning precisely (e.g., 'for example' vs. 'therefore').
• Redundancy: If the clause already signals cause (because) or contrast (although/but), you often don’t need a separate transition.
• Paragraph transitions: Make sure the first sentence of a paragraph links logically to the previous paragraph’s idea.
Mini decision path
A) Identify the relationship (addition, contrast, cause/effect, example, time, emphasis).
B) Choose one clear signal from that category (or choose NONE if unnecessary).
C) Check punctuation if you keep the transition inside a sentence.
Quick practice (choose the best transition or NONE)
1) The team met every week; , progress stalled after the funding cuts. (A) however (B) moreover (C) for example (D) none
2) The sample was small; , the effect size was consistent across groups. (A) therefore (B) in contrast (C) nevertheless (D) for instance
3) The river level rose overnight; , the lower trails were closed. (A) consequently (B) similarly (C) however (D) namely
4) The method was difficult to learn; , many beginners succeeded quickly. (A) for example (B) in other words (C) nevertheless (D) moreover
5) Several measures can reduce noise; , double‑pane windows and thick rugs are effective. (A) therefore (B) for example (C) in contrast (D) however
6) The figure already begins with 'Although'; add 'however' at the start of the next clause. (A) therefore,
(B) nonetheless, (C) do not (D) for instance,
7) The first trial failed; , the second produced usable data. (A) meanwhile (B) nevertheless (C) namely (D) similarly
8) The device passed all lab tests; , field conditions demanded a sturdier design. (A) for example (B) in contrast (C) as a result (D) likewise
Answer key: 1) A (contrast) 2) C (concession) 3) A (result) 4) C (concession) 5) B (example) 6) C (delete) 7) B (concession) 8) B (contrast)
Tip: If you can label the relationship in one word, picking (or deleting) the transition becomes easy.
Further Practice (Khan Academy)
• Boundaries — Linking Clauses
• Boundaries — Punctuation
• Boundaries — Supplements
• FSS — Subject–Verb Agreement
• FSS — Pronoun–Antecedent Agreement
• FSS — Verb Forms
• FSS — Subject–Modifier Placement
• FSS — Plurals & Possessives
• Transitions
Last Updated: June 2025
This End User License Agreement (“EULA”) constitutes a legally binding contract between you, the individual user or, if you are a minor under 18 years of age, your parent or legal guardian (collectively, “You” or “User” as defined in Section 2.3 of the Terms), and Sthirah, Inc. (“Sthirah,” “we,” “us,” or “our”), a Delaware corporation with its principal place of business located at 3903 Garnet Fls, Sugar Land, TX 77479, Houston, Texas. This EULA governs your rights and obligations with respect to the use of the Sherpal cloud application (“App”), including all software, databases, functionality, content, documentation, and artificial intelligence features (“AI Features”) provided by Sthirah.
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